Witch Cult in Western Europe, in Review

I bought this book on a recommendation from a friend. There’s a lot in it that jives with things I’d either known or come to suspect. It’s also a good book to have read if you want a handle on one of the quiet influences on the occult as it would come to be following WWII. You get bonus points for reading in conjunction with seeing the Swedish film Häxän. Anyway.

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The book “The Witch-Cult in Western Europe” was written by Margaret Anne Murray and published in 1921. The book supposes a hypothesis in which the Witch Trials of Europe reflect a deeper truth. The Trials were not mere hysteria, nor necessarily the rampant intolerance of a histrionic sect of a religion. Rather they were the attempts of a learned few whipping up the unwashed many into a frenzy. Their aim was to extirpate and eliminate the vestiges of European Paganism which the Church had theretofore been incapable of thoroughly expunging. The “Satanic rhetoric” of the Witch Hunters, the following pathos, therefore can be explained as propaganda. If one deconstructs the various allegations with a little bit of levity, they see not Black Masses, but forgotten fertility rites, and even hints of shamanism reaching back as far as the Upper Paleolithic Era.

About the Authoress

As to the authoress, Margaret Anne was an Anglo-Indian scholar. Her parents, English, birthed her in India. She studied mainly Egyptology, as was popular at that time. She gained a note of prestige in this field and was eventually the first woman to unwrap a mummy for investigation. Her upbringing, which was a Traditionalist English Christian one, was something she in large part strove against. She became a member of first Wave Feminism, rejecting the interpretations of women as inferior to men which was prevalent in her former circles.

Eventually her adventures in Egyptology and Feminism concluded when there was a travel ban during the first European Civil War. This prompted her to begin to develop her Witch-Cult hypothesis, being as mentioned above, that there was a Definite Religion amongst European Witches which the Christians sought to smash. Part of her motivation was a notation she once made that the English showed an appalling lack of interest in their own folklore, preferring instead exotica. To that end, she concentrated her Witch-Cult studies on Britain, mostly England, using anecdotal research from Scotland, France, Flanders, Sweden and most importantly, New England, to establish her claims. She would later go on to produce work claiming that Proto-Europeans worshipped Goddesses over Gods.

Her hypotheses were received poorly by the scholarly community, which was not ready to entertain them. Although it should be noted that the more popular James Frazer and his Golden Bough made suppositions not entirely antithetical to Murray’s which followed. Then there came Robert Graves and his “White Goddess” which could be seen as vindicative. Margaret Anne Murray lived to her hundredth year, having been besides her Witch-Cult theory, generally well-regarded. This despite her political activity which could have well put her at odds with her peers. In the wake of her death, in time, her hypotheses would have somewhat obvious ramifications. She is amongst earlier generations of Wiccan practitioners regarded as the Grandmother of Wicca – her emphasis on Dianic Cults and the duality of Masculine and Feminine divine have obvious inspiratory effects on the burgeoning religion. In some ways she s to Wicca what Vilhelm Grønbech is to Asatru.

Introduction

There are any number of explanations for the Witch Trials which Murray rejects in addition to claiming that in the tale of the ‘Witch of Endor’ from the Old Testament the unbelievers in witchery have an unanswerable claim. One cannot believe in the Bible and not in witchcraft, she believes it follows. For the Bible itself, believing in witchery while having the dubious claim of being the final word of its god, cannot be denied. Therefore it follows there must have been a subtle vein of competitive religions which the Bible authors saw as threats. This cult has survived into the Early Modern Period of Europe – and maybe beyond. Furthermore, she feels that the fallback theories explaining the phenomena of witchcraft and their trials away to be ludicrous. Auto-Suggestion she denies, as well as hysteria and hallucination. There can be no middleground between believer and unbeliever, the thing is, or is not.

She believes a more or less organised religious structure of witches can be deduced from evidence. Primarily are the explanations of common misconceptions. Taboos regarding burial mounds, superstitions regarding places in nature, as well as the connection between doors and janus, the usage of brooms – all of these point to misinterpreted fertility rites and pagan holdouts. Finally, the most competent of persecutors were ardent believers in witchcraft and its “evil.” Unbelievers often exhibited obvious moral failings, and were themselves probably atheist and almost equally at risk from the establishment as the witches they toasted on an open fire.

Murray suggests witchcraft can be divided into two. The two forms are Operative and Ritual witchcraft. Operative Witchcraft involves the use of spells, charms, or objects as a normal part of culture – Christianity nonwithstanding. A rosary is an example of Operative Witchcraft, as is the Hand of Glory. Ritual Witchcraft however, encapsulates the religious beliefs of Witches. She calls it the Dianic Cult, and labels it a pre-Christian holdover. The God of this religion was entitled to rites, whether the God was anthropomorphic or theriomorphic. The religion was originally agricultural but over time and invasion morphed into the Late Stage Paganism of the Greeks and so forth.

The Cult is + ++named Dianic not after the Goddess Diana, per say, but rather one Dianus who appears to be a God equivocal with Ianvs, or Janus. This God was either overpowered or left the stage, but informs a misty and forgotten ideal of God. Their celebrations give us Candlemas, and many other fiery, solar festivals. Witches had organised cells like Churches, and Covens had Chiefs but they were not by default inc orporated. There are hints of femininity which are overstated, and possibly subsumed. It is probable a Mother Goddess once reigned over the Witches but became subservient to the God over time. The Goddess anticipates her replacement, the Queen of Elfhame.

The Elves are a mythologised representation of a race of smallfolk, or dwarves. They are said to have inhabited Europe until a point but were thrust into the hills and valleys, much as the Tuatha de Danaan were noted to have been driven away by the Gaels. Fertility rites were monumentally important, the lurid kinky sex rites Christians babbled about were not. There was, however, a “Dionysian” figure involved which dour Christians could not reconcile to their understanding who became the tempting devil.

I. Continuity of Religion

Heathendom survived Christendom with almost embarrassing prevalence. Pagans have influence, if unconsciously, on the public. This accounts for a great deal of holidays, charms, songs and spells that have been rebranded as “Christian.” The Druids had never been fully snuffed out by the newcomers. England would later retvrn in waves, the Anglo-Saxons bringing a Pagan wave which in turn went the way of the Christianised Celt – these same Anglo-Saxons would have again breathed heathen air with the invasion of Guthrum and his Danes. The State Religion, it is argued, is merely skin deep. Heathenry persisted at home. After all, had there truly been no sympathy for Paganism than when Lord Guthrum and his Danes arrived there should have been no reason for the Anglo-Saxons to retvrn – it was not required of them.

Quaint folk customs betray an underlying heathen heart. In January, the English would do rites dressed as stags and elks and such. They still ate and drank in heathen temples, and did rites at stones. All things later authorities would ban. They are also said to have ridden with Diana on some nights accompanied by diverse beasts and obey her as their chief. [Which sounds rather like the Wild Hunt.] Spells were done at “frithspots.” These were trees, stones and fields. It was nature worship, plain and simple. These witches were originally a fertility cult, the vestiges of the old world, and brought prosperity and good. What we know of the witch trials are inversions created by the state. Lastly, witchery is said to have been voluntary. None were coerced to join a sect.

II. The God

”The Devil” stands at the head of the cult, but to the witches he was a god. He stands opposite YHWH, one guesses. He was revered, children were named after him – he was even at times a self-sacrificial god – as gods in the European pantheon had been since immemorial. Fealty to the God was by contract. The God often appeared as a “black man” (dark eyes, hair and clothing – as in Goth, not the Rotherham Special.) He sometimes appeared on horseback. [It is curious to me that the accounts of the devil over the course of the book unconsciously betray what might be Odinic archetypes; disguises, use of aliases, predilection toward charms and fertility and healing. Etc.]

There was a Coven in Suffolk, East Anglia, which was reported to have had elaborate prayers to the God – whose testimony is a citation of evidence. Often, the devil would win women followers by curing them of infertility, having them renounce their baptisms and drink with him. Another citation has the devil in a red cap and white robe leading witches in dance around a great standing stone. The Swedish witches spoke of a grey-clad, red-haired man with a high-crowned and wide-brimmed hat.

”The Devil” has also come as a woman. Here she is called the “Queen of Elfhame.” She has also been the French “Queen of the Sabbat.” This feminine devil appears mostly in Scotland. She is often described as being stout, or else portly, given to great thirst and tests hospitality by asking for drink. If satisfied, she was known to cure the sick and render babies onto followers if well waited on. She is skilled in all crafts, does her business on Wednesday and travels with a male counterpart called Cristonday. She appears young, is pleasant to the eye, dresses in white and is often called Helen. For her services she has been known to demand a kiss planted squarely on the back of her ass. Which evidently was believed to be a common means of homage.

Other times she comes as a spirit taken right out straight from the breath of they who sold their souls. Other times she comes again as a woman, but a more motherly one with a troop of kids on her back and at her feet. Here she claims to speak for the Queen of the Faeries.

Identifying “the devil” with certainty becomes difficult because of the many, and not always anthropomorphic, forms taken. Sometimes the devil might come as an animal. This would impact the practise of witches, or perhaps vice versa and the practise impacted the devil. At any rate, there was said to have been a College of Witches in England, as well as several Societies. These were tame, and it is from France that we gain our more lurid accounts of witchery.

Effigies and substitutive magicks were often used. Wax figures, for example, became popular. These were often wrapped in special clothes. They also wore animal disguises, the witches did, which are as old as the Paleolithic Gods – with cave paintings in France depicting beast-men that are most likely shamans. The Gods of Egypt were probably recollected priest figures. Cat garbs were popular, although Lappish custom substituted for dogs. Goat costumes became popular in France, while in England the stag, elk and bear were used but nevertheless more uncommon.

III. Admission Ceremony

Children were dedicated at birth and were often members for life. Use of ritual and high practise remained in Scotland far long than in England. Renunciation of Baptism was a major component for converts. This often involved standing with one hand on the head, another on the foot with one foot raised. [One wonders if this evokes imagery of British and Irish giants, who were often shown with one hand, eye and foot.] This practise was only used among Celtic witches, not the English ones. Terms of service were sealed in blood, most times. The subject was given a new name and was often branded. Converts had to be vetted.

In later tradition there was a signing for. Upon renouncing the baptism, converts would sign their names to “the devil.” The illiterate made crosses and circles. In New England there was a sophisticated ledger. Also in New England, converts were given new nicknames such as “Stout Janet.” This happened after faces were dipped in water and cleaned. The whole of the ceremony was considered purificatory. The witch is given a mark which is invincible to pain and does not bleed when pierced. The marks were sometimes rendered as blue, and in designs. [Could it be wode?] Others were marked on the fingers. The most infamous mark to occur is the infamous supernumerary nipple [the spiciest vocab word you didn’t know you needed] or third tit. This reportedly happened more to men, and more prominently among the English. [u w0t m8???]

IV. The Assemblies

Sabbat is not actually a Jew word. It does not equivocate Sabbath, so much as an Anglicisation of the French “s’esbattre.” [Referring to frolicking or self-amusement.] Perhaps this spirit of frolick eventually gave way to the spirit of flight which is integral to outside accounts. It was said witches could take flight for having partaken of portions made of baby fat, rendered from the unbaptised. They would then fly upon wild beasts led in precession by Diana. That aside…

Sabbats were held on fixed sites. In New England Salem Field did the trick. The Ancient Festivals were kept, and new ones were added. The Solstices were not followed. [Perhaps to avoid censure and becoming smores for the pastors.] Chief festivals were May Eve (April 30) which was also called Roodmas in the U.K., Walpurgis in Duetschland, November Eve (Allhallows), Candlemas (Feb. 2), Gule of August on the First (Lammas), as well as additions of Beltane and Easter.

As Sabbats were often religions, there was another meeting called an Esbat. These were business meetings. However, a communal feast followed both. Rituals, which were just as frequently separate from meetings, were held near villages but not at fixed sites. Only the “Great Assembly” harboured a fixed site. Such rituals, among many other things, included the hallowing of dead men’s bones for charms. There was no fixed day for rituals, but Esbats frequently fell on Tuesday and Wednesday nights.

V. The Rites

Details are scant. They began with homage to “the devil.” These invited renewals of vows of fidelity. Reports of magick and operations followed which detailed all activity between meetings. The devil would be consulted as to how they might improve their art. Vettings and marriages often followed these, along with a religious festival, “obscene” fertility rites followed by feasting and dancing until dawn. Lucifer is vested king of the ceremony and hosts a feast. Reportedly, incubi and succubi would do sex for congregants of the appropriate gender. The dances were often candle lit, and proceeded in a circle.

The “obscene” dances were to increase fertility. Animal disguises were used to increase animal yield, or pastoral function. Unmasked, the rituals were energetically aimed at humans. These were done in a ring around an object. Sometimes the object was a stone, or an effigy of a devil. These were done widdershins, meaning against the sun. Such dances were accompanied by music, and such was often hymns to the master which often paid nod and heed to earthy themes.

As to the feast, tables were carried to a site when indoors. Outdoors congregants dined picnic style. Often the devil stocked the food, or else a generous benefactor. The food is said to have been very good. The devil would sit at the head of the table with the chief woman witch by his side. Continental practises vary little from the British. In Sweden, the witches would gather and offer to the devil, who dished out food as a potluck. All ate their fair share. This happened in a house called Blockula.

Congregants would affirm that they were happier under the devil than under Christ, whom they mocked. Some speak of the Black Mass arrangement, with wafers being dipped in blood or brackish. The altar woman who served, was always nude. Following this, there were sacrifices, of which there were several kinds. Blood, animal, human and divine. Blood sacrifices are attended by contract, written in blood. [Runes were dipped in, or stained with blood.] These contracts, and the spells surrounding them, were often handed down by grandmothers. Sharp bones were used to make pricks. Animal sacrifice was mostly private, sometimes communal but never at a Great Assembly. Dogs and cats and fowl were the most common offerings. Sometimes burial of live animals would be used to cure diseases among farms, or by chucking cats into the ocean to give them toxxo and cause them to rage. Human sacrifice was rare but was believed to have involved children. It is believed witches thought that consuming a child’s rendered fat could make them excel at a given art. This however had a proviso, it was understood that doing so imparted a curse as a means of sympathetic magick and that by harming the voiceless, they would lose their own. Sacrifice of God – often a symbolic goat – was by fire. The ashes of the sacrifice would be scattered across the lands. This was a fertility rite in which the ground and water so touched by the Gods’ ash became hallowed.

VI. The Rites (continued)

The crusade against witchery reached a peak with Pope Innocent III in the year 1488CE. This was due in part to the lack of amerlioration of the old ways, and a potential increase in those seeking to go back to them. Perhaps also there was a gathering threat of visibility. We know fertility rites were done as a community. Midwives were very often witches. [Witchery originally meant one skilled in healing. So it follows that they would be attracted to positions that heal. The cunningfolk were witches by another stripe who used their healing arts for Christ, as opposed to the Gods of the Blood.] There was a ploughing ritual in which witches prayed for brambles, this was likely an inversion of a fertility rite in which the ploughing of a field was a symbolic gesture of charging it with potential energy. Ecclesiastical robes were sometimes used.

Rainmaking was likely a reference to older agricultural fertility rites. There were also throwing rites, in which rocks were hurled to challenge the weather. [In Celtic mythology the Cailleach hurled rocks to change the weather.] In lower culture, sexual rites did occur in which actors or substitutes played specific religious roles believed to bring sexual healing. And fertility. The act of sexual congress with a priest or priestess symbolising their patron God is not unlike Ius Primae Noctis. [Many European myths speak of divine semination of Gods unto mortal women.] Sex with minors and pregnant women was expressly forbidden.

VII. The Organisation

A cell of witches, for a lack of better terms, was led by a Grand Master. His substitute might be an Officer. It was his duty to take notes and enter the reports of witches into his book. During solemnities the presiding devil might elect to make of an officer or congregant his personal assistant, to wait on him during solemnities.

As to the coven itself, the word is thought to be a form of “convene.” Members were bound to weekly esbats. The coven was comprised of both men and women led by a Grand Master. It was their duty to perform rites which others might attend. As to duties, the presiding devil personally instructs witches. New recipes, spells and initiations are recorded in the books.

VIII. Familiars and Transformations

Familiars are personal attendants to the witch, commonly animals or creatures. They can be classified in two parts, 1) those divined by the witch, and 2) those waiting on the witch. 1. The divining familiar: the devil will agree which shape to appear in. Auguries may have been used to scry this agreement, as were gestures and incantations. The devil was not always come as a man, but sometimes an animal or spirit. It is suggested that the familiar is an impartation of the devil or his essences. 2. Domestic Familiars: The English were wont to have creatures called imps. These were often stored in pots or jars. They are scarcely heard of outside England. Often the familiar might be the devil himself in a clever disguise, such as a cat, dog, etc… Now a bear spirit sometimes spoke to supplicants and instructed them in worship and would claim their souls upon death. [The ancient Finns believed in the Spirit of the Great Bear, which was a life principal, and research suggests the presence of an ancient bear-cult adjacent to the prehistoric Goddess religions(s.)] The Laplanders were given to leaving familiars as an inheritance to their offspring.

Familiars which were human were always of the opposing sex and were called devils. They acted as assistants. [I.E. the printer’s devil, or the mason’s devil – such language came to permeate trade schools and such.] Humans were believed to posess the ability to become animals. Wounds would translate from animal form to human upon resumption of form. This trend likely comes from shamans dressing in skins, furs and horns. Goats and sheep were a popular catalyst for transformation. Most masques of the transformed supplicants were found in France.

Appendix I. Fairies & Witches

There was, evidently, a belief in a dwarf race. This race was held to have lived in prehistoric Europe. They were once pervasive and eventually became replaced by successive waves of Indo-Europeans. It was thought that this race might have informed the lore of fairies in Britain, and presumably dwarves in Scandinavia. The authoress believes the Lapps are the last vestige of the dwarf race. The dwarves being those who retained the highest degree of ancient knowledge, which they imparted to the European witches.

The devil does not issue a true name, but comes in many guises. Robin is a frequently used moniker, as is Puck – which can be traced from the Gaelic Bouca and to the Slavic Bog which meant “(a) God.”

There is a section in which Joan of Arc is discussed. The authoress believes Joan of Arc may have belonged to the religion of the witches. She bases this on Joan’s frequent omission of God’s Christian name. She also testified to a “lady’s tree” which shades a spring and was reputed to have been haunted by faeries. [Both Celts and Teutons places oracular women by springs, and the connection of the Goddess to water is difficult to avoid.] Some say these faeries were descended from Cain and would exact tribute every seven years.

England was never truly Christianised. The names of women attest to this, with personal names often being of Pagan origin or traditionally English. Names like Anna and Ella are examples, as is Helen. Even Marget had been linked to the Finnish Marjatta. The lack of Mary as a personal name is suspect and shows betrays a probable anti-christian undercurrent. Marion is an older form of the name which the authoress is convinced has nothing to do with Miriam.

The appendix also carries a panel of lists of witch names organised by county.